Climate Letter #1242

Posted on August 23, 2018 by Carl Campbell
Trees are growing faster and getting bigger but the wood is less dense and not as strong.  Growth spurts are real, because of the longer growing season and extra fertilization from rapidly increasing CO2, but the amount of CO2 being soaked up may have been overestimated.

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Another study shows that the total amount of plant growth in Arctic regions due to warming temperatures may have been underestimated (Yale e360).  A new study uses satellite data to confirm what others have suspected should happen when temperatures are rapidly rising and there is less freezing of soils.  “By the year 2100, Keenan and his colleagues estimate that only 20 percent of vegetated land in the northern hemisphere will still be limited by cold conditions.”  (Similar forecasts have been used by researchers who need to estimate the future trend of carbon emissions due to the meltdown of permafrost.  There is a kind of rough balance, not necessarily even, between carbon release from below and carbon uptake above.)   https://e360.yale.edu/digest/areas-where-cold-temperatures-limit-plant-growth-are-shrinking

Oil companies in Texas are worried about effects of climate change, and are seeking help for protection.  Help could come in the form of a proposed 60-mile seawall along the Gulf Coast, part of a $61 billion project designed to prevent storm surges from coming ashore and ruining many of their refineries along with all sorts of other valuable properties.  There is ongoing discussion about who should pay for such a wall.
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What effect do wildfires have on the trend of climate change (Inside Climate News)?  This is a very complicated subject, and the story covers all the different aspects of warming and cooling effects quite well.  When all is said and done, “Scientists can’t say for certain whether the global level of fire activity in recent years is warming or cooling the atmosphere overall.”  They do know that a majority of the effects are unhealthy for the planet in one way or another and thus undesirable.
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A new theory about a mysterious change in past ice sheet cycles.  About one million years ago the cycles shifted from 40,000 year intervals to the more familiar 100,000 year intervals of the last eight cycles, an occurrence which no one has been able to understand.  Researchers have now found clues to a plausible reason, which is historically interesting but nothing we need to worry about today.

Carl

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Climate Letter #1241

Posted on August 22, 2018 by Carl Campbell
“The end of the oceans,” an article by novelist James Bradley, published by an Australian magazine called The Monthly.  “The world’s oceans and all marine life are on the brink of total collapse.”  Mr. Bradley tells the whole story, from beginning to end, without pulling any punches (except maybe that he could have added yet more to it with a discussion of the perils of nitrogen pollution and dead zones.)  The effects of warming due to climate change and associated acidification get plenty of attention, and he constantly reminds us of the speed at which all of this is happening, mostly measured in just a few decades rather than centuries.  His conclusion:  “Many of the effects of our actions will be felt for millennia. But, despite the scale of the changes we have unleashed, there still remains an ever-narrowing window of opportunity to stave off the worst effects of the disaster that is unfolding around us.”

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Palm oil put to use as biofuel was supposed to help fix the climate, but instead has created a monster.  Deutsche Welle has the story, which has become very complicated because, beyond the environmental damage being done, production of the oil has become a matter of critical economic importance in the producing countries.  Also of note, “The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization says world demand could triple by 2050.”
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A new generation of climate activists has a sense of impending catastrophe and sees a need for radical types of change (Grist).  “Incremental change is not going to help on a planet that’s accelerating toward a carbon-fueled nightmare within our lifetimes. It’s not about “saving the planet,” as it was in the days of Earth First! It’s about saving all of us.”  Kate Marvel is an accomplished climate scientist and fellow millenial:  “We are inevitably sending our children to live on an unfamiliar planet,” she wrote in a recent essay for the website of the On Being Project. “Courage is the resolve to do well without the assurance of a happy ending.”
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A new study reveals many of the secrets about the way forests store carbon (Carbon Brief).  The authors advocate the mixing of a wide variety of species in replanting programs.  This story includes an interesting diagram of exactly where all the carbon is placed within a tree system.  The below-ground total in the roots and adjacent soil exceeds the total from ground level to canopy by a fairly wide margin.
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Joe Romm produces some useful information about the standards of air quality affected by pollution, and how some of the current wildfires have shown results that are nearly off the scale:
Carl

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Climate Letter #1240

Posted on August 21, 2018 by Carl Campbell
Another new worry about rapidly melting permafrost has emerged (National Geographic).  The big story reported here yesterday was based on years of thorough scientific field research, making it quite conclusive.  This one is based on anecdotal material, but the facts revealed are quite startling and perhaps consequential, enough so to attract the attention of several top scientists.  In this case it has to do with ground surfaces that fail to freeze in winter, even when the air is bitterly cold, because of the early arrival of extremely thick snow cover. “The stakes are high. If a region’s active layer stops freezing consistently, consequences can be swift. Once unfrozen, soil microbes in the active layer can decompose organic material and release greenhouse gases year-round—not just in summer. And it exposes permafrost below to more heat so that layer, too, can begin thawing and releasing gases.”  The high Arctic is changing more rapidly than any other region of the planet.

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A decline in summer rainfall correlates with the severity of wildfires.  Scientists have learned that this may be even more important than the rise in air temperatures, which also closely correlate.  The well-measured decline in rainfall is being linked to changes in wind patterns that are affected by changes in Arctic sea ice.  “They found, on average, forests experienced one less wetting rain day per decade, while the worst affected forests experienced six fewer days per decade…..In addition, the researchers found that the average length of dry spells increased in many parts of the western US from one decade to the next.”
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A major study just published has the first comprehensive review of how the warming of the Arctic changes the atmosphere of North America in ways that often prolong weather patterns to the point of extremity,  What scientists call ‘planetary waves’, better known to the rest of us as the jet stream, are being severely distorted from their natural patterns.  “Usually the waves, conveying chains of high- and low-pressure domains, travel eastward between the equator and the North Pole. Yet when they get trapped due to a subtle resonance mechanism, they slow down so the weather in a given region gets stuck. Rains can grow into floods, sunny days into heat waves, and tinder-dry conditions into wildfires.”  This basically confirms what Jennifer Rogers and others have been postulating for the last several years in a more intuitive way.
–The full study has open access:  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-05256-8
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From The Guardian, an update on Arctic sea ice developments this summer.  No records are being set for the volume or extent of melting, but some some phenomena are being recorded for the first time ever, including effects on the oldest and thickest ice that lies directly north of Greenland.  Some experts are predicting delays in the timing of the next refreezing period, which begins after mid-September.
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How energy sources are globally distributed—the historical pattern (Axios).  These two charts clearly show the major changes that have occurred since 1800, dominated by the growth of all three fossil fuel types.  Today, renewables are growing just fast enough to replace declines in nuclear power.  The three fossils are holding on to their share of the total, and the total is growing at about the same rate as always.  The bottom Line:  “To avoid the worst impacts of climate change, renewables and new technologies will need to do more than build atop CO2–intensive fossil fuels.”
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Where the Gods play football (The Siberian Times).  A neat story, with great photography,
Carl

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Climate Letter #1239

Posted on August 20, 2018 by Carl Campbell
A new report shows how melting permafrost is indeed a dangerous source of carbon release.  This is a subject that climate scientists are very worried about but until now there have been too many uncertainties involved for proper conclusions to be drawn.  A 12-year study taken from representatives of hundreds of ‘thermokarst’ lakes in Alaska and Siberia has determined that rapid and deep thawing of permafrost beneath those lakes releases far more greenhouse gas, especially methane, than anyone has previously realized.  The amounts are much too large to be offset by any possible increase in vegetation growth.  “Adding thermokarst methane to the models makes the feedback’s effect similar to that of land-use change, which is the second-largest source of human-made warming.  Unlike shallow, gradual thawing of terrestrial permafrost, the abrupt thaw beneath thermokarst lakes is irreversible this century.  Even climate models that project only moderate warming this century will have to factor in their emissions, according to the study.”  I believe the authors of the study have impeccable qualifications and cannot reasonably be ignored in the creation of climate models, or by the IPCC.

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–This website shows several details of the processes involved in the melting:
–A link to the full study, which has open access:
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A new report about the perils of climate change has been published by a pair of Australians who can be compared to the American Bill McKibben for their deep experience and communicating history as students of this subject.  The work is especially noteworthy because it earned an introduction penned by one of the world’s most distinguished scientists, Hans Joachim Schellnhuber, who acted as an advisor.  You can read about and download the report at this link:
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An expanded view of the difference between land and ocean temperature changes.  In my previous letter I linked to a chart showing the trend for each of these changes since 1950, using a 1951-1980 baseline that needs to be adjusted.  Now I’ve found another chart from Hansen of these two trends that is larger and clearer, starts in1880 and has an earlier base period, one that is about equivalent to a preindustrial figure.  All that is missing is 2017 data, which has dipped a bit from 2016.  The divergence between land and sea is evident, and so is the fact that the spread between them has been continuously widening for the past thirty years.  And land, where almost everyone actually lives, is now running ahead of the 1.5C limit that the Paris Agreement so anxiously wants us to avoid.  We are already there, but temperatures above the ocean surface have not caught up for reasons explained in CL #1236.  Scientists should better acknowledge that the fast feedbacks to a CO2 forcing (like water vapor) are indeed very, very fast when operating over land but a good bit slower over the ocean surface, where the energy that has been captured is constantly leaking away, in part, to the depths below, either for long-term storage or to do some mischief if it circulates to places where ice is exposed.  Because oceans cover 70& of the planetary surface they have considerable leverage over the numbers reported for “average global temperature”, a reading specifically assigned to the lowest part of the lower atmosphere.
–If you go back to this link from the Kevin Trenberth story in Friday’s letter and scroll down a ways you’ll see a chart showing all the energy that has been taken downward from the ocean surfaces since 1985, energy that did not find its way into the atmosphere in the way it would have day after day if it were absorbed on land.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1238

Posted on August 17, 2018 by Carl Campbell
An explanation of the causes of red tides off the coast of Florida, and why the one this year is such a nightmare.  Many factors are involved, among them climate change, but climate change is not singled out as a main driver, just an exacerbating factor.  “Warmer air and water give algae the environment it needs to thrive, a point scientists have emphasized.”

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Stefan Rahmstorf explains the link between climate change and wildfires.  This is an especially good story for other reasons because it has much to say about Earth’s energy imbalance and some up-to-date numbers that can be quoted for its measurement—now 0.9 watts of retained energy per square meter.  There is even a chart that pictures the broad outlines of the main components, which I will comment on later.  The 0.9 watts represent a flow of energy that is for the most part disappearing into the depths of the ocean, thus occurring in a way we don’t easily notice.  The imbalance will eventually be corrected by throwing off more heat toward space, and when that happens the atmosphere will be affected by the additional warming, mostly first appearing on the surface of the oceans.

–Comment on the chart in the story:  Take note of the amount of sunlight that is reflected away without being absorbed at all due to albedo effects, equal to about 30% of the incoming total.  About two-thirds of it is reflected off clouds and the other third off other surfaces, like land, water, aerosol particles and so on.  All of those things happen to have great flexibility and are constantly experiencing at least a little bit of change.  Bigger changes are possible, and that is a concern, especially in the case of clouds.  Just looking at the raw numbers, if you make a change of only 1% in total albedo, which is 101.9 watts, that change would be equal to the total existing energy imbalance of 0.9 watts.  That actually happens when volcanoes like Pinatubo erupt and quickly change the Earth’s temperature by one-half degree or more, on the cooling side.  Unfortunately, most studies of how temperature increases will affect Earth’s albedo see results that imply additional warming, as anyone can expect when there is any disappearance of ice or snow cover.

Having come this far, let’s stay on the subject and take a look at another chart, one that is posted and kept updated by James Hansen on his website.  This one records the differences in trend between land surface and sea surface temperatures since 1950, along with the global total which puts the two together through weighting.  These charts use a base period taken from averages for 1951-1980, not a preindustrial base.  Since 1975 ends up on the zero line all you need to do to convert this to a preindustrial base, as explained in my letter yesterday, is to add 0.3C to all of the numbers you see.  http://www.columbia.edu/~mhs119/Temperature/T_moreFigs/—-It looks to me like the global temperature is right where it should be (with the extra 0.3) at 1.1C.  The big story is about how land and ocean surfaces have diverged over the past four decades.  Land has already reached the 1.5C mark that is fully consistent with the gains recently made by CO2, as described in my letter from two days ago, while sea surface has lagged behind.  Why the difference?  This is where the energy imbalance described in the story above comes into play.  When land loses the energy it absorbs that energy has nowhere to go but into the atmosphere.  When sea surface gains energy a part of it is lost to eddies and currents that carry it down to the depths below, and is thus unavailable to add warmth to the air above.  This is an oversimplification, but I believe it may sufficiently explains why the divergence, which was not evident in the early years on the chart, has grown so much over the decades of huge acceleration in the warming due to greenhouse gases.
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The implication of all this is that if greenhouse gas levels were to completely stop growing, under a zero emissions regime, but stay right where they are now, then air temperatures over land should also stop growing in nearly lock-step fashion, which would be most welcome, but the sea air would still have to catch up and finally come back to being equal with land as it was before. That would not happen until the warm surface waters that are pulled down into deeper parts of the ocean are fully replaced by equally warm waters that upwell from below, unlike what is happening today. The global average would of course also be moving up during this time, but at a slower pace.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1237

Posted on August 16, 2018 by Carl Campbell
An important new study of marine heatwaves, reviewed here by Carbon Brief.  The study gives a clear picture of what can happen to the oceans with global temperature increases ranging up to 3.5C.  The review is outstanding, with too much information for a meaningful summary, but one question remains unresolved for others to answer.  Is there a way to stop temperatures from reaching 3.5C, equal to where they were in the mid-Pliocene when the CO2 level was not much higher than where it is today?

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An interesting report was published about a year ago dealing with questions surrounding efforts to reveal the true global average temperature rise since preindustrial times.  Here is a link to the full study, which you can look over or just read the abstract, which has the most important conclusion:  https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0007.1—-“Our assessment is that this preindustrial period [1720-1800] was likely 0.55°–0.80°C cooler than 1986–2005 and that 2015 was likely the first year in which global average temperature was more than 1°C above preindustrial levels.”  That helps to confirm the common idea that the current warming can be called plus-1.1C with reference to the Paris targets.  There is also a figure within the study which I have extracted and blown up that is quite interesting, at this link:  https://journals.ametsoc.org/na101/home/literatum/publisher/ams/journals/content/bams/2017/15200477-98.9/bams-d-16-0007.1/20171004/images/large/bams-d-16-0007.1-f2.jpeg—It looks to me like we can settle on readings of an overall rise of 0.3C between 1750 and 1975, a period that included numerous irregularities, and a further rise of 0.8C since 1975 following a long and linear type of upward slope, which brings us to 1.1C plus having that strong and more pronounced trend in effect.
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Signs that the next five years are likely to remain on the upward trend.  A new study looks at natural variability trends that cause temperature trends to wobble back and forth for any number of reasons and concludes that the next five years are more likely to be a little above trend than below.  An El Nino event that some have been predicting for a beginning later this year would suffice to make the study look good for at least a couple of years.
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For the US block of 48 states, the three-month period May-June-July this year was the warmest on record.  That would certainly help to account for all the fires.  Death Valley was the world’s leader for temperature with a 108.1 average.
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There were authentic magazine and newspaper accounts as early as 1912 about the greenhouse gas effect of burning coal and how climate would change as a result.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1236

Posted on August 15, 2018 by Carl Campbell
Today, something a bit different for the Climate Letter.  We’ll start with a new report from Politico covering the latest presumptions of a vital need to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.  There is a European Commission that takes this need very seriously and is actively investigating possible methods, for reasons that are clearly stated in the report:

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Note that these reasons were derived from a report published by the Commission’s Joint Research Centre in July.  That report makes reference to the conclusions of a team of scientists from around the world who were seeking to identify bottlenecks toward achieving the goals set in Paris, expressed as follows:  “They found that even with very strong efforts by all countries, including early and substantial strengthening of the intended nationally determined contributions, residual carbon emissions will reach around 1000 gigatons of CO2 by the end of the century.”  By my reckoning those residuals alone are the equivalent of about thirty more years of today’s level of fossil fuel emissions, which would be large enough to add another half degree to temperature increases if that carbon is not removed in a timely manner.  That is on top of the carbon that must be removed right now, before the residuals even begin to appear, in order to achieve the 0.5 target.  Thus the overall hurdle that is created for “negative emissions” to leap over is indeed very, very high, and we have yet to discover a viable methodology.  Here is the link to the Commission’s research report:  https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/news/higher-ambition-needed-meet-paris-climate-targets
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This information presents a question that has not been given an answer.  Even without the trillion tons of residual emissions, how much CO2 would really need to be removed from the atmosphere in order to keep our planet within the 1.5C limit?  I have been trying to figure that out, making a few broad assumptions and doing some simple calculations (with no peer review to back things up).  My conclusion:  It seems that we have already raised the CO2 level in the atmosphere more than enough to reach 1.5C within a couple of decades.  That was settled in the year 2013 when we passed through the 396 ppm level at the Mauna Loa observatory.  ( https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/graph.html )  Why 396?  First, because that number is half way between 280 and 560 on what is for this purpose the commonly used logarithmic scale.  It so happens that a 1.5 degree increase is precisely half of a 3.0 degree increase, and 3.0 happens be the number that a great many scientific models seem to converge upon when making estimates of climate sensitivity, or the amount of temperature increase expected to occur from any doubling of the CO2 level.  This particular definition focuses on the kinds of changes that should be completed within decades, setting aside the potential for other kinds of effects that would likely require centuries to unfold.
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I have taken this way of thinking one step further, based on the general assumption that this shorter-term type of sensitivity should spread evenly across CO2 increases from any level and regardless of regularity or time of duration.  This creates what might be called the “12% rule,” which simply states that any time you add 12% to the CO2 level you have established the foundation for an additional 0.5C in the global temperature.  Using the ordinary rule of 72, 12% (actually a bit more)  compounded six times will give you a double, and the accumulation of six such gains of 0.5C will neatly bring you up to the 3.0 mark that is regularly used as the principal sensitivity estimate.
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An advantage of dividing sensitivity up into six small-sized slices this way is that some of the early slices from our era can now be tested for historical accuracy. Beginning in 1750, when CO2 was still at 280 ppm, the first slice ended in 1958, at 314. A temperature increase of 0.5C, which cannot be measured very perfectly, appeared around 1990. The next 12% slice ended in 1989 at 352, with temperature adding another 0.5C just recently, in 2015. The third slice, which also completes the halfway point, ended at 396 in 2013 as observed above. With temperature rising steadily at a rate of 0.17C per decade we should reach 1.5C (from 1.1 today) right around 2040. Based on these results, I am not sure there is any way to improve on the 12% rule, so will leave it there for now, keeping in mind the possibility that bits and pieces of the much longer term “Earth System Sensitivity” impacts could start showing up at any time.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1235

Posted on August 14, 2018 by Carl Campbell
Important new information about the way large amounts of CO2 were vented from the Southern Ocean during past periods of deglaciation.  What has long been suspected has now been confirmed, showing the true source of rapid CO2 increases that can be seen on historical charts derived from ice cores covering the last 800,000 years of ice age glacial cycles. (I once thought it mostly came by way of the carbon stored in melting permafrost as ice sheets retreated, but this is a much better explanation.)  There is more to the story:  “What concerns the researchers is that it could happen again as the climate continues to warm”……”Ocean release would subtract from our remaining emissions budget and that means we’re going to have to get our emissions down a heck of a lot faster. We need to figure out how much.”
https://phys.org/news/2018-08-scientists-atmospheric-co2-deglaciation-deep.html

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A review of two recent studies about the effect of higher temperatures on soil biology and weakening of soil carbon retention.  The information is not brand new, but for those who are not already familiar this is a good summary of some important findings related to one of the less visible impacts of climate change.
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New information about the mechanisms responsible for the melting of West Antarctic glaciers from below by pulses of warm ocean currents.  Data collected over a period of decades suggest the recent development of a strong fundamental acceleration rather than a slow and steady linear trend.
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What happens when cities experience temperatures of 50C (122F)?  It has already been exceeded in a few places where most people knew how to adjust.  The Guardian tells what it’s like and then goes on to report some forecasts as the curve keeps bending upward.  For example, “New studies suggest France “could easily exceed” 50C by the end of the century while Australian cities are forecast to reach this point even earlier. Kuwait, meanwhile, could sizzle towards an uninhabitable 60C.”
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Tax havens are largely responsible for the funding of illegal deforestation and fishing operations.  A Swedish group used a systematic approach to track and measure the massive amount of money involved.  “This lack of transparency hides how tax havens are linked to degradation of environmental commons that are crucial for both people and planet at global scales.”  There is no central power of enforcement over the many small countries that have cooperative politicians.
https://phys.org/news/2018-08-links-tax-havens-deforestation-illegal.html
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The problems caused by plastics and plastic waste, just as massive as the problems of climate change, and based on exactly the same raw materials, are still looking for solutions.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1234

Posted on August 13, 2018 by Carl Campbell
A new message from Climate Code Red, by David Spratt.  This one is based on leaks of what the IPCC is likely to be reporting in the near future, for reasons that are politically motivated, about how we can meet the 1.5C target that was optimistically introduced at the Paris conference.  David explains the whole situation quite well and then reiterates most of the basic reasons for why that goal is already out of reach, with the 2.0 target on course to follow.  The IPCC does not represent the views of scientists like Michael Mann, James Hansen, Stefan Rahmstorf and many others who do the hard research and accept the hard numbers.  There is a lot in this report that’s worth thinking about, and then keeping in mind when the IPCC actually makes its own report.

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See what the Germans are doing to help reduce carbon emissions (Thomson Reuters Foundation).  They are constructing a new lignite coal mine that is large enough to require the elimination of twenty villages.  A picture gives some idea of its immense size.  “Germany’s Environmental Agency says the Federal Mining Act prioritises the extraction of raw materials over the interests of the common good.”  That is the current reality of government policies almost everywhere.  It’s another example of why the target of holding temperatures below 2.0C is in big trouble.
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What will rapid sea level rise be like for large coastal cities?  Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, provides a great example because much of the city is currently sinking at rates exceeding all such expectations, even up to one meter every four years in some places.  This is happening because of the excessive pumping of groundwater with no other sources available and no end in sight.  BBC News has produced a fine documentary, well-illustrated.

The Los Angeles Times seems to believe that the climate we are in right now is more than dangerous.  The state has already taken many positive steps to mitigate climate change as a good policy, and is now experiencing some very practical reasons for being yet more aggressive.  http://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-lopez-climate-action-08122018-story.html

How much of a forest’s carbon is released by a wildfire?  Researchers are now saying only 15% is released by the fire itself, with the charred remainder following over an extended period.  In California, ironically, the total of such emissions and others that are related are now large enough to offset many of the gains being made by the state’s progressive climate change policies.
Carl

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Climate Letter #1233

Posted on August 10, 2018 by Carl Campbell
Jeff Goodell is not a climate scientist, but he reads the science, talks to the scientists, just knows a lot about it, and is a topnotch writer.  Put that all together with an explosive new scientific report and you get as very strong story, just published by Rolling Stone.  It pulls no punches, with a big assist in that respect from James Lovelock.

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Joe Romm is an active scientist, also a good writer and diligent public communicator.  Here is the way he describes the new study, including an effect diagram showing the possible escape route from a ‘hothouse’ Earth if proper emergency measures are taken.  His report also includes references to some earlier studies that drew the same kind of conclusions about climate change:  “In a 2012 National Science Foundation news release on paleoclimate research, the lead author pointed out, “The natural state of the Earth with present carbon dioxide levels is one with sea levels about 70 feet higher than now.” A 2009 paper in Science concluded that when CO2 levels were sustained at this high a level 15 million years ago, it was 5° to 10°F warmer and seas were 75 to 120 feet higher.”
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Will Steffen, the lead author of the new study, gave a lecture in New Zealand one year ago which explained many things about how the Earth System works and how its various components are likely to unfold over time, with vast modulations for the climate .
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How does a hothouse Earth differ from the greenhouse state that exists today?  Here is one description:  Back in the 16th century, “a hothouse was a bathhouse or a brothel, or a heated room for drying linen, and then a heated greenhouse for cultivating exotic species.”  James Lovelock (see top story) should concur.
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New research has found intriguing evidence of yet another pathway to the highest temperatures experienced in Earth’s past.  It involves progressive changes in the nitrogen cycle which could have resulted in the production of large amounts of nitrous oxide, a potent form of greenhouse gas, significantly supplementing the action of known increases in CO2 and methane.  The researchers believe that many of the processes that led to such an outcome are at work today.  As the lead author put it, “Studying conditions that fostered nitrous oxide production [during the PETM] enables us to calibrate current and future Earth system models. There is more to warming than just increased concentrations of carbon dioxide.”  This important work has the potential to fill in gaps in our understanding of the past that scientists have so far found hard to explain by any other means.
https://phys.org/news/2018-08-team-ancient-marine-sediment-benchmark.html
–Link to the full study, with open access:  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-05486-w
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From China, a new generation of organic solar cells is setting efficiency records and may soon be ready for commercial applications.  BBC News has the full story.
Carl

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